Alliteration Definition
Alliteration is derived from Latin’s “Latira”. It means “letters of alphabet”. It is a stylistic device in which a number of words, having the same first consonant sound, occur close together in a series.
تعريفه:
التجنيس أو الجناس هو أن يتفق اللفظان في النطق أو يتقاربان فيه ويختلفان في المعنى، هذا من جهة ماهيته، أما من جهة فائدته "هو بيان المعاني بأنواع من الكلام يجمعها أصل واحد من اللغة".
Common Examples of Alliteration
In our daily life, we notice alliteration in the names of different companies. It makes the name of a company catchy and easy to memorize. Here are several common alliteration examples.
Dunkin’ DonutsPayPalBest BuyCoca-ColaLife LockPark PlaceAmerican ApparelAmerican AirlinesChuckee Chee
We also find alliterations in names of people, making such names prominent and easy to be remembered. For instance, both fictional characters and real people may stand out prominently in your mind due to the alliterative effects of their names. Examples are:
Ronald ReaganSammy SosaJesse JacksonMichael MooreWilliam WordsworthMickey MousePorky PigLois L
Alliteration Examples in Literature
Example #1
From Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”
“The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.”
In the above lines we see alliteration (“b”, “f” and “s”) in the phrases “breeze blew”, “foam flew”, “furrow followed”, and “silent sea”.
Example #2
From James Joyce’s “The Dead”
“His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead.”
We notice several instances of alliteration in the above mentioned prosework of James Joyce. Alliterations are with “s” and “f” in the phrases “swooned slowly” and “falling faintly”.
From William Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet” (prologue to Act 1)
“From forth the fatal loins of these two foes;
A pair of star-cross’d lovers take their life.”
This is an example of alliteration with the “f” and “l.” in words “forth, fatal, foes” and “loins, lovers, and life”.
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s (English Romantic poet) “The Witch of Atlas” is a famous poem that is full of examples of alliterations.
Function of Alliteration
Alliteration has a very vital role in poetry and prose. It creates a musical effect in the text that enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. It makes reading and recitation of the poems attractive and appealing; thus, making them easier to learn by heart. Furthermore, it renders flow and beauty to a piece of writing.
In the marketing industry, as what we have already discussed, alliteration makes the brand names interesting and easier to remember. This literary device is helpful in attracting customers and enhancing sales.
simile
التشبيه
A simile is the simplest
figure of speech. It is an explicit comparison between two dissimilar
parties to make them similar in one or more aspect by the use of an
instrument (e.g. like, as, compare; etc.)
Any simile should have four
components:
tenor -1
مشبة
2- vehicle
مشبة بة
3- instrument
اداة الشبه
4- ground
وجة الشبة
ُE.g.
For the world,
which seems to lie
Before us like a
land of dreams
Arnold's simile can be analyzed as follows:
The tenor: the world
The vehicle: a land of dreams
The instrument: like
The ground or the aspects of similarity:
happiness, peace of mind, and joy.
فى هذا المثال شبة الشاعر العالم بارض الاحلام فيكون وجة الشبه هو الفرح
وصفاء الذهن والمشبة هو العالم المشبة بة هو ارض الاحلام والاداة هى مثل
Practice:
Try to analyze the simile in the following line as
I've already done above .... answer in your post
O, My
love's like a red, red Rose
__________________________________
2- METAPHOR
There are different types of metaphors let us study the first one (implied or suggested metapor)
The simplest definition of a metaphor refers to it as an
implicit * comparison between two parties between two dissimilar
parties to make them similar in one aspect or more without any use of
instrument. The use of the "rose" in Burn's simile, "O, My love's like a
red, red Rose," is different from its use in the following lines:
She was our queen,
our rose, our star,
And then she danced- O heaven, her dancing !
In the above lines, the poet likens the lady concerned (
Queen Elizabeth I) to a "rose", and a "star" without using an
instrument
tenor is the lady described
vehicle 1- the rose 2-the star
ground:
1- beauty of colour, tenderness, and nice smell
2- brightness, majesty, and elevation
[b][b] There are two
other forms of the METAPHOR:
1- The first is the one in which an attribute or quality of the vehicle
is transferred to the tenor without being related. This is clear in the
following line:
She was our queen,
our rose, our star,
And then she danced- O heaven, her dancing!
In the second line he says that this rose or star dances.A queen may
dance, but neither a rose nor a star dances; and the description of the
movement and the star as dancing is metaphorical
[/b]
[b]يبقى تانى شكل من الاستعارة هو ان صفة من المشبة بة تنقل الى
المشبة بطريقة غير مباشرة. يعنى المفروض ان الشاعر وصف الملكة بالزهرة
والنجمة ....
يبقى الملكة = الزهرة = النجمة
فوصف فى البيت الثاني ان هذة الزهرة رقصت يبقى دة النوع التانى من
الاستعارة لان الزهرة لا يمكن ان ترقص...
What is a Pun?
Puns are plays on words devised for the purpose of creating humor for the audience. These plays on words may come from words that sound the same but have different spellings/meanings, or one word that itself has more than one meaning. Jokes that are in the form of puns may seem cheesy, but they are an artful, clever use of language.
Pun Examples
Have you ever eaten a clock? It’s very time consumingTime consuming = punIn this example, the phrase “time consuming” is a pun. It holds two different meanings: eating is time consuming as well as a time consuming clock.Animal puns? Toucan play that game.Toucan = punIn this example, the word “toucan” has two meanings in the joke: toucan the animal as well as it sounding like the number phrase “two can.”
Modern Examples of Puns
Typically, the common examples of puns found today are through witty remarks made by people:
Did you hear about the guy whose whole left side got cut off? He’s all right now.All right = punI used to be a banker, but I lost interest.Interest = pun
Puns vs. Jokes
Because puns are so often used to create humor, people may tend to think that they are synonymous with jokes.
While these two are similar, they are not the same device. In contrast to jokes, which are always intended to create humor, puns at times may be a type of joke or they may be used as a rhetorical device.
The Function of Puns in Literature
In literature, puns are used to create humor in the scene through their lighthearted, witty nature. While puns at times may seem silly or cheesy, they are an artful way to use words and often receive positive reactions from the audience if they are aware of the multiple meanings of the words used in the text.
Examples of Puns in Literature
One of the most famous artists of puns was the playwright William Shakespeare.
In his tragedy Romeo and Juliet, he used puns in scenes that allowed for comic relief in an otherwise serious play. Romeo’s friend Mercutio uses several puns throughout the play showing his witty personality.
After being stabbed by Tybalt, Mercutio exclaims, “ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man”. In this line, the word “grave” holds two meanings creating a pun:
Tragic hero
A tragic hero is the protagonist of a tragedy in dramas. In his Poetics, Aristotlerecords the descriptions of the tragic hero to the playwright and strictly defines the place that the tragic hero must play and the kind of man he must be. Aristotle based his observations on previous dramas.[1] Many of the most famous instances of tragic heroes appear in Greek literature, most notably the works of Sophocles and Euripides.
البطل المأساوي التراجيدي (بالإنكليزية: Tragic Hero) شخصية محورية نبيلة لها قدر مأساوي، أو خلل مميت، يقودها في النهاية إلى حتفها. وُجد مفهوم البطل المأساوي في المأساة الإغريقية القديمة،
What is a tragic flaw?
A tragic flaw is a literary term that refers to a personality trait of a main character that leads to his or her downfall. In other words, a character with a tragic flaw is in need of some kind of attitude adjustment. The term usually comes up when you're studying a tragedy — that is, a piece of literature in which the main character ends up dead or otherwise defeated. In this kind of story, the main character is sometimes also called the tragic hero.
Some examples of classic tragic heroes are Hamlet and Captain Ahab.
A protagonist
(from Ancient Greek πρωταγωνιστής (protagonistes), meaning 'one who plays the first part, chief actor') [1][2] is the leading character of a story.
The protagonist is at the center of the story, makes the key decisions, and experiences the consequences of those decisions. The protagonist is the primary agent propelling the story forward, and is often the character who faces the most significant obstacles. If a story contains a subplot, or is a narrative made up of several stories, then each subplot may have its own protagonist.[3]
The protagonist is the character whose fate is most closely followed by the reader or audience, and who is opposed by the antagonist. The antagonist will provide obstacles and complications and create conflicts that test the protagonist, thus revealing the strengths and weaknesses of the protagonist's character.[4]
بطل الرواية مشتقة من الكلمة الإغريقية πρωταγωνιστής والتي تعني صاحب الدور الرئيسي، أي الشخصية الرئيسية في القصة سواءً في الأعمال الأدبية أو السينمائية وهو صاحب البؤرة الرئيسية في الإهتمام لأي سرد يتخلق ويشمل صراعاً مابين بطل الرواية والغريم
An antagonist
is the character in a story who is against the protagonist.[1]
الغريم أو الخصم، هو شخصية أو مجموعة شخصيات، وفي بعض الأحيان مؤسسة، تمثل ما يعاكس ويُضاد ما يفعله البطل أو الشخصية الرئيسية، ويؤمن به. في الشكل الكلاسيكي من القصص حيث يحتوي النسيج القصصي على بطل يقاتل شريراً، يمكن اعتبار الاثنين كعامل رئيسي وعامل مضاد على التوالي.
Sonnet
A sonnet is a poem in a specific form which originated in Italy; Giacomo da Lentini is credited with its invention.
The term sonnet is derived from the Italian word sonetto (from Old Provençalsonet a little poem, from son song, from Latin sonus a sound). By the thirteenth century it signified a poem of fourteen lines that follows a strict rhyme schemeand specific structure. Conventions associated with the sonnet have evolved over its history. Writers of sonnets are sometimes called "sonneteers", although the term can be used derisively.
سونيته أو الأغنية القصيرة، مشتقة من الكلمة الإيطالية، هي أحد أهم أشكال الشعر الغنائي الذي انتشر في أوروبا في العصور الوسطى وكتب فيها كبار الشعراء. وتتألف من أربعة عشر بيتًا بأوزان وقواف معروفة وتركيب منطقي. اهتمت السونيته بمعالجة بعض الموضوعات مثل الحب العفيف
stanza
In poetry, a stanza (/ˈstænzə/; from Italian stanza [ˈstantsa], "room") is a grouped set of lines within a poem, usually set off from other stanzas by a blank line or indentation.[1] Stanzas can have regular rhyme and metrical schemes, though stanzas are not strictly required to have either. Even though the term "stanza" is taken from Italian, in the Italian language the word "strofa" is more commonly used. There are many unique forms of stanzas. Some stanzaic forms are simple, such as four-line quatrains. Other forms are more complex, such as the Spenserian stanza. Fixed verse poems, such as sestinas, can be defined by the number and form of their stanzas. The term stanza is similar to strophe, though strophe sometimes refers to irregular set of lines, as opposed to regular, rhymed stanzas.[2]
The stanza in poetry is analogous with the paragraph that is seen in prose; related thoughts are grouped into units.[3] In music, groups of lines are typically referred to as verses. The stanza has also been known by terms such as batch, fit, and stave.[4]
الدور، ويقال له المقطع، وربما أطلق عليه البيت، هو عند الشعراء ما اشتمل على أربعة أشطر أو أكثر يجمعها إيقاع أو وزن واحد.
Iambic Pentameterبتروفا والشعر خماسي التفعيلة ،
Definition of Iambic Pentameter
Iambic Pentameter is made up of two words, where pentameter is a combination of ‘pent,’ which means five, and ‘meter,’ which means to measure. Iambic, on the other hand, is a metrical foot in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable. It means iambic pentameter is a beat or foot that uses 10 syllables in each line. Simply, it is a rhythmic pattern comprising five iambs in each line, like five heartbeats.
Iambic pentameter is one of the most commonly used meters in English poetry. For instance, in the excerpt, “When I see birches bend to left and right/Across the line of straighter darker trees…” (Birches, by Robert Frost), each line contains five feet, and each foot uses one iamb.
Examples of Iambic Pentameter in Literature
Example #1: Macbeth (By William Shakespeare)
Example #2: Ode to Autumn (By John Keats)
Example #3: Holy Sonnet XIV (By John Donne)
Example #4: Twelfth Night (By William Shakespeare)
Example #5: My Last Duchess (By Robert Browning)
Function of Iambic Pentameter
Iambic pentameter is commonly used in poetry and verse forms. Many Elizabethan dramatists, such as John Donne and William Shakespeare, used this form in their poems and poetic plays to keep up decorum and grandeur of the language. Modern authors, too, use it for writing serious poems. Its major function, therefore, is to give less rigid, but natural flow to the text. Also, this form accommodates intonation and pace of language, allowing an underlying meter to make impacts on readers.
القصيدة الإنجليزية وتسمى أيضا الشكسبيرية English or Shakespearean Sonnet
اخترع هذه الطريقة هنري هوارد Henry Howard
تنقسم هذه القصيدة إلى ثلاثة أقسام Three Stanzas
الأقسام الثالثة الأولى يتكون كل منها من أربعة أبيات كل واحد يسمى Quatrain(نذكر كلمة quarter اللي تعني ربع علشان نذكر معنى الكلمة) ويسمون أيضاSicilian quatrains بالعربي رباعيات أو رباعيات صقلية
القسم الرابع: fourth stanza يتكون من بيتين يسمى هذ القسم couplet أوheroic couplet زوجي أو زوجي شجاعي (أو يمكن لها ترجمة أفضل , على كل حال هو مصطلح فني وماله شغل بالشجاعة) – (نتذكر كلمة couple اللي تعني زوج علشان نتذكر عدد الأبيات)
موضوعيا الـ couplet هو الـ turn في القصيدة الإنجليزية
القافية : rhyme scheme
تستخدم القصيدة الإنجليزية وتحديدا الشكسبيرية (لأن الإنجليزية السبنسرية تختلف في هالحاجة) القافية التالية
Abab cdcd efef gg
القصيدة الإنجليزية السبنسرية Spenserian Sonnet تستخدم القافية التالية:
abab bcbc cdcd ee
التفعيلة Iambic meter والقافية Rhyme scheme
التفعيلة الخماسية Iambic pentameter
بالنسبة للقافية, يستخدم( في السونيتة الإطالية والسونيتة الإنجليزية (الشكسبيرية والسبنسرية),
octave or octet:
هو المقطع الأول من السونيتة الإيطالية أو البتراركية والذي تيكون من ثمانية أبيات
oct باللاتينية تعني ثمانية مثل كلمة octopus أخطبوط تبدأ بـ oct لأنه عنده ثمانية أذرع
Sestet:
هو المقطع الثاني من السونيتة الإيطالية والذي يتكون من ستة أبيات (نتذكر كلمة ستة)
Conceit:
الخيال, استخدام تشبيهات metaphor مطولة extended metaphorوربطها مع الواقع بغرض إيصال فكرة معينة, مثل ما استخدم جون دون صورة الفرجار compass وشبه نفسه وحبيبته بأرجل الفرجار( الفرجار لوحده يعتبرmetaphor لكن تفصيل الصورة في وصف حركة الفرجار وغيره يحولها إلى تشبيه مطول extended metaphor), واستخدم صورة الذهب, واستخدم صورة الأجرام السماوية
Paradox:
تناقض (في الأدب تناقض ظاهري) مع التمعن يتضح أن التناقض غير موجود,
Metaphysical Poetry:
الشعر الماوراء طبيعي, يختلف عن شعر الحب العادي في أنه يستخدم - وبشكل ذكي وغير مألوف – الخيال والتناقضات والصور البلاغيةconceits, paradoxes and Imagery بخلاف شعر الحب العادي الذي لا يستخدم هذه المهارات بكثرة كما أن الشعر العادي يكون موضوعه الغزل بمعناه الجسدي الشهواني الطبيعي
Pastoral Poetry:
شعر الرعي, يكون موضوعه الأساسي هو جمال الحياة الريفية, والموضوع الثانوي هو الحب
Symmetrical response:
كلمة symmetrical لوحدها معناها متماثل, بس في الشعر هي أن شاعر يرد على قصيدة شاعر ثاني بنفس القافية, في الشعر العربي هذا النوع يسمى شعر النقائض, مثل اللي كان بين جرير والفرزدق
Carpe diem:
عبارة لاتينية معناها في الإنجليزية seize the day أو بالعربي عيش يومك
Allusion:
الإحالة أو الإشارة, عندما يذكر الشاعر شيء يشير فيه إلى حدث أو قصة معروفة في مكان معروف, كأن يشير إلى قصة معينة في الإنجيل مثلا, أو نقدر نقول لو بالعربي واحد قال لحبيبته أنا أحبك أكثر من حب عنتر لعبلة, هنا ذكر عنتر وعبلة يسمى allusion لأني أشرت إلى قصة معروفة بدل ما أقعد أشرح.
Theme:
الموضوع, موضوع القصيدة
Non-sequitur:
هي جملة أو إشارة أو خاتمة لا تناسب طبيعيا أو منطقيا ما سبق ذكره (وهذ الشيء يحصل بسبب فقد بعض النصوص من المسرحيات فتظهر جمل كأن مكانها غير صحيح )
Assonance:
هو تكرار بعض حروف العلة بشكل متناسق
مثال: تكرار حرف e في البيت الثاني من قصيدة Julia
Then, then (me thinks) how sweetly flows
وأيضا في البيت الرابع
Next, when I cast mine eyes and see
Consonance:
هو تكرار بعض الحروف العادية (غير العلة) بشكل متناسق
مثال: تكرار حرف L في المقطع الأول من قصيدة Julia
When as in silks my Julia goes
Then, then (me thinks) how sweetly flows
That liquefaction of her clothes
cavalier poets
هم الشعراء اللي كانوا مقربين من الملك (بصيغة اليوم: المولاه - عكس المعارضة) تشابه تسمية بعض الشعراء بـ شعراء البلاط
Country-House Poem:
هي نوع من قصائد المديح, يكون موضوعها وصف جمال البيت (أوالقصر) الريفي الذي يسكنه أغنياء الدولة ومدح صاحب القصر (يكون عادة رجل)
Definition of Epic
. The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, “epikos”, which means a poetic story. In literature, anepic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery
The Epic of Gilgamesh (~2000 BCE)
Perhaps, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the first example of an epic. It tells the story of the life of an Assyrian king, Gilgamesh. Like all other epics, the narrative of this epic revolves around the themes related to gods, human beings, mortality, legacy and seduction. Like other epics, it is also composed in a grand style. Gilgamesh is a young arrogant king due to his being half-god and half-human. His strength and masculine beautybecomes a constant source of trouble for others. Therefore, gods grow sick of Gilgamesh’s arrogant and troublesome attitude and decide to teach him a lesson. He is made to fight his antagonist, Enkidu, and then go on a long journey to bring the plant of life — a journey on which he learns the lessons of life. Although the epic is written nearly 4,000 years ago, critics are unanimous that it is a human work.
The Iliad (800 BCE)
Iliad is another example of an epic. It was written by the popular Greek poet, Homer. It relates the story of the Trojan wars, involving themes of courage, boldness, love for one’s country and nostalgia of family. However, it describes many legends related to the siege of Troy, the events took place before the siege, the gathering of the warriors prior to the siege and the causes of the war. Later, the epic foretold the looming death of Achilles and the destruction of Troy. The style of narration is grand, and suits an epic poem — the reason that it is still one the most celebrated work of antiquity.
Paradise Lost (1667)
Written on the same traditions but on a different subject, Paradise Lost, is an English epic by yet another blind poet of English origin, John Milton. It also is known colloquially as the Protestant Epic. In this epic, Milton argues Satan’s fall from the heaven as well as Adam and Eve’s fall from the Garden of Eden. Despite his blindness, Milton did not stop from explaining “the ways of God to men.” He has depicted Satan as a highly complex character, who is at war with God. Despite his different subject, Milton has used several epic devices introduced by Homer such as invocation to the muse, extended similes and grand style.
Function of Epic
As the epic poem is the earliest form of poetry, it is the earliest form of entertainment as well. Epics were written to commemorate the struggles and adventures of kings and warriors. The main function of epic poetry was to elevate the status of the hero among the audiences to inspire them to be ready to perform heroic actions. Epic obtained most of its themes from the exploits performed by legendary characters and their illustrious ancestors. That is why these exploits became examples for others to follow, and still lived in books. It is through epics, models of ideal heroic behavior were supplied to the common people. Moreover, epics also were collections of historical events not recorded in common history books — the reason that they are read today to be enjoyed and be informed regarding the past.
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